I always thought that chervil was a delicate, shade-loving herb in the carrot family, which it is. The name chervil can also refer to a root vegetable from the same family. Digging even deeper, I learned that the same name can also refer to several other plants, but we're going to focus on the first two. For now. The name chervil is probably so popular because it comes to us from the Ancient Greek words for "leaves of joy". How's that for a garden addition? Makes me want to grow them just for that. Let's see if we'll want to grow them for other reasons, as well. Chervil, the herb Chervil, the herb, is also known as French parsley or garden chervil, is more delicate than parsley, with a light licorice flavor. Chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium) is used along with chives, parsley, and tarragon to make fines herbes and it is commonly used to season poultry, seafood, soups, and sauces. These plants grow 12-30" tall and readily reseed an area, left on their own. Like other umbellifers, chervil plants have hollow, ribbed stems, divided leaves, long, sheathed petioles (leaf stems), and flat seeds. Edible chervil flowers attract many beneficial insects, so these plants are commonly included in butterfly gardens and tea gardens. Chervil prefers partial shade in areas where temperatures are under 65°F and full shade in areas that go above 80°F, making chervil a nice addition to stumperies and shade gardens. Chervil can be grown in USDA Hardiness Zones 5-9 when temperatures are above 60°F. Chervil does not transplant well, due to its taproot, so seeds should be planted in place. This is a cool season crop that needs moisture. Seeds should be planted 1" deep and 6-12" apart. In 10-14 days, you should see signs of life. In 45 days or so, your chervil will reach harvestable size. Slugs and snails will be your biggest problem Chervil, the root vegetable
Native to middle- and southeastern Europe, this root vegetable goes by several names: bulbous chervil, parsnip chervil, tuberous-rooted chervil, and turnip-rooted chervil. Popular in Europe in the 19th century, these biennial plants grow very much like their cousins, the carrots. Instead of carrot's orange taproot, bulbous chervil (Chaerophyllum bulbosum) looks like stubby, dark gray carrots with yellowish-white flesh. Eaten raw, these tubers are said to taste similar to radishes. Once cooked, they are described as a cross between potatoes and chestnuts, with just a hint of celery and parsnip. [I haven't had them yet.] These roots are left in cold storage for a few months for starches to be converted into sugars. Being a member of the carrot family, bulbous chervil plants produce large flower clusters that attract many beneficial insects, such as hoverflies. Bulbous chervil grows best in loose, fertile soil that is kept moderately moist. Seeds need to be vernalized (exposed to cold) to germinate properly. Because of this, seeds are usually planted 2" apart in autumn. As temperatures rise, in spring, germination should occur. Initial growth is a rosette of leaves close to the ground, followed by stems that can grow 2-6' tall. Roots are harvested when leaves start turning brown, usually in late summer. These are slow-growing plants that take 9-10 months to reach maturity. Pests of bulbous chervil include aphids, carrot root flies, and voles. Diseases are similar for carrots and parsnips, with celery mosaic virus and root rots being the most common. How about adding some leaves of joy to your garden this year? Most of us garden because fresh fruits, vegetables, and herbs taste better. But why do they taste better? In fact, why do plants have flavors at all? It ends up that flavor is all about transmitters and receivers, but not the type that deliver your favorite songs or movies. Chemical signals
Plants have flavors because of the chemicals they use to communicate and to protect themselves. They use these chemicals to attract pollinators, inhibit bacterial and fungal pathogens, and, in some cases, slow the growth of competitors (allelopathy). Plants protect themselves by creating chemicals that make them unpalatable to attacking insects, herbivores, or pathogens. Plants use one chemical, ethylene gas, to trigger neighboring plants to ripen. In nature, this means there will be a bunch of ripe fruit available at the same time, increasing the odds of birds and animals coming to eat and dispersing seeds. This ripening cascade works the same way leaves change color in autumn. A few trees start doing it, which triggers neighboring trees to follow suit. But how do those chemical communications translate into flavors? A matter of taste When we eat something, our taste buds collect information about the chemicals in our food that dissolve (soluble). At the same time, our noses collect information about the chemicals released into the air as we chew (volatile). It ends up that these are the same chemicals plants use. Taste and smell are inseparable. In fact, your sense of smell is estimated to be 80% of the flavor experience. Don't believe me? Try closing your eyes, plugging your nose, and taking a bite of onion - you'll swear it's an apple. Taste is a matter of acids and sugars. There are different types of sugars. Most fruits contain varying combinations of fructose, sucrose, glucose, and sorbitol. Fructose has the most sweetness and sorbitol has the least. Our taste buds sort sugars and acids into five categories: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. Umami is a protein flavor. Some cultures also include fattiness (oleogustus) and pungency. Did you know that children have 10,000 taste buds and older adults only have 5,000? And dogs have less than 2,000 (which may explain why they are willing to eat some really gross things). They simply don't taste them. On the other hand, our canine companions have over 300 million smell receptors, while we have 50 million or so. Scents and smells We sort out aromas over those 50 million receptors using more than 650 different types of olfactory nerve endings found in our noses. I once gave my students the assignment to create their own word. One 6-year-old student came up with 'olfactorized'. When I asked her for a definition, she said it meant being attacked by a bad smell. I miss teaching. But how can a plant smell something without a nose? It ends up that plants have sensory receptors, much like our taste buds, that allow them to identify volatile chemicals (essential oils) floating around in the air. Dodder, for example, is a parasitic plant that uses its sense of smell to find host plants, sniffing out its favorites and avoiding sick plants. Some of those scent chemicals include:
Clearly, there are many factors that determine a plant's flavor and some of those factors are under your control. Flavor factors Genetics play a big role in flavor. If you want to taste lime, you wouldn't plant a grapefruit, right? When selecting plants for your garden or landscape, start by choosing varieties that are suited to your microclimate and that produce the flavors you want. Environmental conditions also impact flavor. If your fruit trees and tomato plants don't get enough sunlight, they cannot produce the sugars that make them taste good. Proper tree training and plant spacing, pruning, and reflective mulches can be used to increase the amount of sunlight that reaches inner branches. If your plants are allowed to produce too much fruit, the flavor won't be as good, either. Fruit thinning allows plants to focus their energies on quality, rather than quantity. In the same way, too much irrigation can be just as bad as not enough. During the growth phase, plants need plenty of water. As crops get closer to harvest time, you can increase flavor by reducing the amount of water available. This is called deficit irrigation. The same is true for nutrition. If your plants get too much nitrogen, they will have more of a green, grassy flavor. Less nitrogen translates into more fruit flavor. When you harvest your fruits also determines flavor. Most store-bought produce is harvested before it is fully ripe, to allow for shipping and storage. One of the nicest things about growing your own is that you can wait until that perfect moment before taking a bite. What are your favorite garden flavors? Elderberry syrup and elderberry wine are yours for the making when you grow your own. Sometimes. It ends up that this group of mostly edible plants is more complex that I realized. I say mostly because red elderberries are toxic and should never be eaten. Blue and black elderberries are toxic when unripe, but safe and delicious when ripe or cooked. And the elderberries used to make medicinal syrup are only one type of elderberry. That being said, edible elderberries are pretty amazing. Most of us have heard about elderberry jams, jellies, pies, syrup, and wine. Did you know you can also dip flower clusters in batter and deep fry them? These plants were traditionally used by Native Americans and the Spanish for a lot more than just food, though. The cooked "sauco" was a summer staple that needed no sweetening. Hardwood stems were used to make arrows, flutes and whistles, blowguns, baskets, and fire starters, with the pith used as tinder and stems used as twirling sticks. The wood was also used to make combs, clappers, and pegs. Elderberry plants Elderberries are deciduous, flowering plants (angiosperms) that grow as shrubs. Now, we're not talking about tame, well-mannered shrubs here. Some species of elderberry, given the opportunity, can grow 20-30' tall and wide, in something of a fountain shape similar to currants. And they grow quickly. [Before you panic, know that most elderberry shrubs only grow 6-12' tall.] Glossy leaves are opposite. Cream or yellow flower clusters appear in spring, followed by purple berries in autumn. Elderberries used to be thrown in with the honeysuckle family, but scientists have discovered that they are their own group (Adoxaceae). The elderberry family is also known as the moschatel family. [If that name is new to you, you are not alone!] In the world of elderberries, it ends up names can get very confusing. To begin, all elderberries are members of the Sambucus genus. Beyond that, there are several species worldwide, with three major elderberry species found in the U.S. Each of these species has different characteristics. American black elderberries American black elderberries (Sambucus nigra spp. canadensis) are native to North America east of the Rockies and they prefer cool, moist conditions, often growing naturally alongside creeks and in low lying areas. European black elderberries European black elderberries (Sambucus nigra spp. nigra) are found throughout Europe. These plants are not as cold tolerant as the American blacks, but more so than the blues. And it is European black elderberries that are made into medicinal syrups. Mexican blue elderberries Until very recently, I didn't even know there were blue elderberries. Now I get to try my hand at growing my own because a reader dropped off a big cutting yesterday! [Thank you, C.P.!] Blue elderberries (Sambucus mexicana) are native to North America west of the Rockies and they go by a variety of names, both common and scientific. Blue elder, sweet or wild elder, Arizona elderberry, and blueberry elder are just a few of the common names. If you talk with botanists, they have another whole collection of names, but we won't get into that. Bottom line, blue elderberries prefer hotter, drier conditions than the other two. These California natives have deep roots that go in search of water. Blue elderberries also have a longer harvest season, producing fruit all summer in most cases. Elderberries and biodiversity Healthy environments are diverse, with lots of different things living and growing and interacting with each other. It ends up that elderberries are an extremely important food source for many native birds, including western bluebirds, cedar waxwings, and ruby-crowned kinglets. Elderberry flowers also attract a number of moths, some of which you may not want near your garden. Maybe the birds will eat them, too. Elderberry plants produce knob-shaped, nectar-producing glands, called extrafloral nectaries, on leaves and stems. These sugar stations attract beneficial insects. This is why elderberries are often included in butterfly gardens, bee gardens, and insectaries. Insectaries can be plants or plantings that attract beneficial insects. How to grow elderberries Elderberries can grow in full sun, partial sun, or full shade, depending on the variety. Once established, they need very little water, maybe once a month in summer. They can also grow in areas that stay moist, but they do need medium to fast drainage. These plants can tolerate temperatures as low as 5°F, but they prefer heat. Elderberries are best grown from seed that have been planted right away, in autumn, or separated from the fruit, dried, and then warm stratified for spring planting. If you are lucky enough to receive cuttings like I was, follow these steps:
Once established elderberry plants can be coppiced. Coppicing refers to periodically cutting trees or shrubs back to ground level to stimulate new growth for firewood, basket weaving, or other building materials, as well as fruit.
Irregular brown or white spots on leaves often mean that leaf blight has taken hold. There are many different types of leaf blight. Leaf blight can be caused by fungal spores or bacteria and most forms of leaf blight are species specific, which means different types of leaf blight attack different plants. If you grow onions or garlic, carrots, sorghum, melons or squash, you need to know about leaf blight.
Fungal leaf blights of onions and garlic Purple lesions, yellow to brown spots, and yellow streaks on onion or garlic may mean purple blotch and Stemphlyium leaf blight have infected your plants. These two fungal leaf blight diseases are mostly late-season problems, so you can avoid them altogether by planting early season crops, if that's an option for your area. As a double whammy, these two diseases often start growing in downy mildew lesions. A similar leaf blight attacks sorghum. Fungal leaf blight of squash and melons Alternaria leaf blight is a fungal disease caused by Alternaria cucumerina that attacks members of the squash family. Melons are the most susceptible, but squash, pumpkin and cucumber may also become infected. Brown smudges first appear on older leaves, near the base, or crown, of the plant. If you look closer, you will see that the damaged areas often have a yellow halo. These leaf spots may also develop concentric, target-shaped rings. Ultimately, leaves wither, curl upward, and die. Alternaria leaf blight doesn't harm the fruit, but it can interfere with photosynthesis enough to reduce crop size and can cause sunburn damage. Bacterial leaf blight of carrots Bacterial leaf blight is caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. carotae and attacks carrots. Brown spots are first seen along leaf edges, or margins, and may look watersoaked. As the disease spreads, you may be able to see dark brown streaks on the petioles, or leaf stems. Flowers may also become affected. An amber-colored ooze is usually present, as well. Bacterial leaf blight is a seed borne disease, so be sure to get your seeds from reputable suppliers. This disease is only active when moisture is present. Optimal temperatures are between 77° and 86°F. This disease does not occur when temperatures are below 65°F. Leaf blight management Preventing disease is nearly always easier than curing it, and leaf blights are no exception. You can prevent leaf blights in your garden with these tips:
If leaf blight appears in your landscape, toss infected plants in the trash at the end of the growing season and be sure to sanitize your garden tools between cuts. You can use common bathroom cleaners to do this. Most of us have had the experience of discovering a forgotten something in the back of the fridge, or found a fruit in the bottom of a bowl, covered with fuzz. That fuzz is a type of fungus. The white threads seen in soil and compost - more fungus. But there is far more to this bizarre life form than you might expect. Prepare to be blown away! A different kingdom We all know about the animal kingdom and the plant kingdom, but the kingdom of fungi is far less familiar. Fungi are not plants. In fact, they have more in common with animals than plants. Fungi broke off into their own group one billion years ago, and we have a lot to learn about them. Fungi can cause and cure disease. They have been used as pesticides, poisons, and potables. They are the Earth's (and your garden's) primary decomposers and critical players in nutrient cycling and most food webs. Fungi are used in bioremediation and there are fungal spores drifting down onto your skin as you read this. Fungi spoil our food and help it grow. They break down our buildings and provide us with building materials. Every step that you take on soil impacts approximately 300 miles of fungal threads. Every step. Three hundred miles. There are species of ants that farm fungi for food. One type of wasp injects her eggs together with a certain fungus into the bark of host trees. The fungus starts to rot the wood, making it easier for her babies to eat when they first hatch. There are fungi living in the gut of several garden insects, including beetles and cockroaches. Once we begin to see fungi for what they are, an extremely large, diverse group, I think we can appreciate them more fully. The fungal family Yeasts, molds, and mushrooms are all types of fungi, while slime molds and water molds are not. Water molds (oomycetes) are more closely related to algae, while slime molds (mycetozoa) are closer to amoeba. [Did you know that lichens are actually mutually beneficial communities of fungi and algae?] Scientists estimate that there are millions of species of fungi. So far, we only know about 150,000 of those. An area of fungi is called its mycobiota. The study of fungi is called mycology. There are currently nine types of fungi that have been identified. You can look them up, if you're into that sort of thing, but this post is already packed with a lot of information. Fungal anatomy One thing that makes fungi different from plants is that their cell walls contain something called chitin. Chitin is also found in fish scales, squid and octopi beaks, and insect exoskeletons. Plants do not contain chitin; they have cellulose. Some types of fungi have structures called rhizomorphs, which behave similarly to plant roots. Fungi grow threadlike structures called hyphae. These are not chains of cells, the way algae grow. Instead, hyphae are tubes that may hold several nuclei. Hyphae grow at the tips of these tubes and often branch. Collectively, these hyphae are called mycelium. Mycelium are found in all of Earth's soil. Growths of mycelium are called colonies. There is one fungal colony in Oregon that covers 2,400 acres and is believed to be 9,000 years old. Known affectionately as the "Humongous Fungus", this specimen of Armillaria ostoyae may be the world's largest living organism, when measured by area. Fungal feeding Fungi do not perform photosynthesis. Like animals, they must get their food from other living (or dead) things. The different ways fungi gather their food may surprise you. In some cases, fungi do this by dissolving organic material using digestive enzymes and absorbing nutrients. Other fungi, especially pathogens, have piercing structures that can break through plant tissues, spreading disease. More on that in a minute. Some fungi are miners. They secrete acids that dissolve tiny rocks, creating tunnels, and then harvest and store those minerals for later use. You've probably heard me talk about mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizae are microscopic fungi that live in and around the roots of many garden plants, helping them to absorb important nutrients. These fungi also help transport inorganic, mineral nutrients from one plant to another, in exchange for sugars produced through photosynthesis. There's a great NPR radio show, From Tree to Shining Tree, which talks about an experiment that showed how trees share their food with other trees, even trees of different species. All of this happens because of soil fungal colonies. But there's more to fungi than simply decomposing and mining. There are fungi that actively hunt springtails and other microorganisms found in the soil. They trap their prey in sticky nets and insert hyphae into living insects and nematode eggs, sucking out the innards. But they don't keep all of that food for themselves. Fully one-fourth of those insect guts and embryos end up in nearby trees. In exchange for that gift, trees give 20-80% of the sugar they produce through photosynthesis to the fungi growing in and around their roots. The fungi, in turn, hold that sugar until it is needed by the tree, or its neighbors, at which time they give some of it back. We now know that trees send chemical messages through these fungal networks, warning neighboring trees of illness, or insect or herbivore attack. We also know that dying trees move their resources into the fungal network to be shared with other trees. We do not know who or what decides the movement of these resources or chemical messages, but I can't help wondering about the neuron-like structure of the fungal networks that help keep our plants alive. But I digress... Fungal reproduction Fungi use several methods of reproduction and some species use more than one method. In most cases, fungi reproduce by releasing spores into air or water. A few older specimens have spores with wiggly tails called flagella. Most fungi now use cup-shaped fruiting bodies, called apothecium, which are lined with a tissue that produces spores. Spores are often ejected forcefully, with the initial force reaching nearly 10,000 g's! Fungi also reproduce by splitting off bits of mycelium, while others use colors and odors to attract insects, which help distribute spores. Most spores are spread on wind, which is why a fungal disease in your neighbor's yard is a problem for your garden. Fungi in the garden Fungi perform several functions in the garden: some of them good, and some of them not so good. Fungi decompose our compost piles and provide many garden plants with nutrients. Some fungal species inhabit the leaves and stems of your grass family plants, making them less attractive to herbivores and better protected against environmental stresses in exchange for room and board. One Swedish study even showed that it is fungi and not plants who are sequestering the majority of the carbon held in northern boreal forests. But all too often, fungi are the cause of plant disease. Fungi as disease carriers There are many different fungal diseases that can affect garden plants: black spot, blights, downy and powdery mildews, rusts, and wilts are just a few. More often than not, the presence of too much moisture is the reason why fungal disease takes hold. You can reduce the odds of fungal disease occurring in your garden by spacing plants out properly, pruning for good airflow, and keeping leaves dry. This means watering from below, rather than from above. Soaker hoses and furrow irrigation are better choices when fungi are present. (And they are always present.) When fungal diseases strike, be sure to dispose of infected plant material in the trash, and sanitize garden tools between each cut. I hope you now share my new-found respect for these amazing life forms. Imagine an apple that tastes something like bell pepper. That was the first description I could find for rose apples. I had never heard of these edibles until this morning when a friend told me she was having some problems growing hers in San Francisco. Let’s see what we can find out. Rose apple family Despite the name, rose apples are not in the rose family. Instead, they are a type of myrtle (Myrtaceae), making them cousins to cloves, guava, allspice, and eucalyptus. Rose apples are native to Southeast Asia and the northern parts of Australia. These plants are tropical and cannot handle freezing temperatures. They thrive in moist heat with full sun. If any of these conditions is missing, trees will not produce fruit. They need to be irrigated in summer and kept on the dry side during periods of cold. Mature trees tend to have a dense crown with many slender, arching branches that can make the tree wider than it is tall. Large, showy flowers appear in early summer. The fruit is a slightly pear-shaped berry, with a hint of rose fragrance. The flesh is crisp and watery, with a taste that starts out mildly sweet and then turns to a floral rose or slightly bitter taste, depending on who you ask. These fruits are non-climacteric, which means they must be left on the tree until they are fully ripe before being harvested. Once picked, most varieties of rose apples do not ship or store well. Like apples, rose apples often do not grow true from seed, although some people have had good luck that way. Very often, the fruit is substandard when started this way. Cuttings and most grafts generally fail, as well, so plants are most often reproduced vegetatively, using air layering. There are four major types of rose apple, each with different characteristics. In many cases, there is an overlap of names, but it’s nothing to worry about unless you’re a botanist. Jambos rose apples Jambos rose apples (Syzgium jambos) feature yellow fruit with two seeds. They are also known as plum roses, wax apples, and pomarrosa. These trees grow 10-45’ tall and look very similar to guavas. Unlike guava fruit, which is filled with tiny seeds, these rose apples contain one or two large seeds. Apparently, when the fruit is ripe, you can shake it and hear the seeds rattle. Lance-shaped evergreen leaves and twigs are hairless (glabrous) and the brown bark is smooth. In temperate regions, these trees are self-fertile. Java rose apple Java rose apples (Syzgium samarangense) are also known as wax apples, wax jambu, and Java apples. These trees grow 40’ tall and have grayish-pink bark that flakes off. Leaves can be up to 10” long and 4” wide, and they smell nice when crushed. Java rose apples are bell-shaped and come in many different colors, with pale red being the most common. Malay rose apples Malay rose apples (Syzgium malaccense) are also known as mountain apples, Malay apples, pomerac, or simply rose apples. The oblong fruit of these plants is said to be refreshing but bland. Some varieties have pink or white skin, but most Malay rose apples have dark red skin and contain only one seed. Trees can grow 40-60’ tall. Watery rose apples
Watery rose apples (Syzgium aqueum) are also known as water apples, bell fruit, and bush cherries. Water apples are true to their name in that they need lots of water, as in monsoon levels. The yellow fruit of water apples is described as the taste of apple and the texture of watermelon. Unlike other rose apples, this variety stores well. Glossy green leaves are also edible. Rose apple problems While rose apples have few insect pests, it ends up that they are fruit fly magnets. If you are growing rose apples, you need to harvest the fruit as soon as it is ripe. And discard overripe fruit right away. This will interrupt the lifecycle of the fruit flies, along with several other pests. On the disease front, myrtle rust (Austropuccinia psidii), also known as guava rust, has all but wiped out the Hawaiian rose apple population. Since rose apples are introduced as ornamentals in many regions, this isn’t necessarily a bad thing. Unless it strikes your tree. Other common diseases and disorders of rose apples include anthracnose, leaf spot, mushroom root rot, root rot, and sooty mold. All that being said, I think insufficient sunlight and cool temperatures are probably the problems being faced by my friend’s tree. [Sorry, Gaea!] If you are growing rose apples, we’d love to hear about it in the comments! Strange and exotic dragon fruit is even more bizarre when you learn that these delicious fruits grow on a vining cactus! If you’ve never seen one, dragon fruits have bright pink, leathery skin and scaly spikes. The interior fruit is peppered with tiny black seeds, similar to kiwifruit. White-fleshed dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus) is the one we see most often in grocery stores. There are also red- and yellow-fleshed varieties, H. costaricensis and H. megalanthus, respectively. Also known as pitahaya and strawberry pear, dragon fruit is probably native to Central America, though scientists are still debating over that. The dragon fruit plant Dragon fruit plants are climbing cacti with branches that put out aerial roots. Fragrant, edible flowers bloom at night. Pollination is usually done by bats and moths. These plants can handle temperatures over 100°F and light touches of frost. Too much time in freezing temperatures will kill a dragon fruit plant. These plants can get big. Wait, let me say it another way – they can get HUGE! Multiple branching arms can grow 30’ long. That’s important information if you want to start growing your own dragon fruit. How to grow dragon fruit To begin, be sure to get a self-fertile variety. Also, having more than one plant will boost your harvest, if you have room. You can grow dragon fruit in 15-gallon pots to help keep it under control. This makes moving it to a protected spot in winter easier, too. Being cacti, dragon fruit plants thrive in Hardiness Zones 10-11, though they can sometimes be grown outdoors in zones 9a or 9b. They grow best in slightly acidic soil with good drainage.
You can grow dragon fruit from seeds or cuttings. Like most cacti, broken-off bits of a stem will readily start producing roots when in contact with moist soil. [In some countries, dragon fruit plants are classified as invasive weeds.] To grow dragon fruit from seed, be sure to remove all the fruit first and allow them to dry out. Then, lightly cover them with nutrient-rich potting soil and water regularly, allowing the soil to dry out slightly between waterings. Soggy soil usually kills seeds and seedlings. Seeds should germinate in a couple of weeks. If you are growing a dragon fruit indoors, you will need to pollinate flowers by hand, which isn’t difficult. Dragon fruit plants usually reach full production when they are 5 years old and live for 20-30 years. Dragon fruit problems Most dragon fruit diseases are related to too much water. Overwatering and heavy rains can create conditions that allow several fungal and bacterial diseases to occur. Be on the lookout for anthracnose, black rot, blossom drop, brown spot, cactus stem rot, pitaya fruit rot, and white rot. This is why good drainage is so important. Also, you will need to monitor for aphids, mealybugs, mites, and thrips. These pests can suck the life out of your dragon fruit, and some of them may carry plant diseases. If you’ve never eaten a dragon fruit, I urge you to try one. Then, decide for yourself if there’s room for this vining, fruiting cactus in your landscape! A new weed has appeared in my lawn and it’s a member of the mallow family. We’re not talking about roast-able marshmallows here, although it ends up there is an ancestral connection. Cousin to okra, hibiscus, cola nuts, and cocoa, the mallow family also includes cotton, hollyhocks, and linden trees. And an Old School ingredient of marshmallows. But we’ll have to get to that another day. Weeds move fast! I needed to stay focused before deciding what to do about this new weed. It started out looking like dove’s-foot crane-bill, but the leaves grew more round, almost like miniature nasturtiums. Rather than growing upward or climbing, they took on more prostrate, rosette forms. My new weeds are called common mallow, but I love the Latin: Malva neglecta. How’s that for a name?
Common mallow plants Common mallow is also known as buttonweed, cheeseplant (another great name!), roundleaf mallow, and dwarf mallow. This weed is native to Morocco, Mongolia, and Spain, just to name a few. In fact, this little weed really gets around! Apparently, once common mallow appears, it can be hard to get rid of. [Uh, oh!] Tough, cheese wheel-shaped pods can hold and protect 10-12 seeds for decades. Once germination starts, a tough taproot stakes its claim, searching for hard-to-reach water and nutrients. Ultimately, plants can get 6-24” tall. I haven't seen any yet, but they produce pinkish-white flowers in mid-summer. Common mallow plants can be annual or biennial plants, most often found in neglected areas. [I have to assume seeds blew in from my neighbor’s yard because there’s nothing neglected about my yard. Well, maybe a couple spots…]
An edible weed The leaves, seeds, and stems of common mallow are edible. Mature seeds are cooked like rice, and immature seeds are eaten raw. I was surprised to learn that common mallow seeds contain 21% protein and 15.2% fat! Traditionally, people have chewed the leaves to treat sore throats. Since most mallow family plants produce mucus, I suppose that it soothes irritation the same way apple pectin does. But I’m guessing. There are countless claims about common mallow as a medicinal plant, providing relief for everything from the common cold to childbirth difficulties. According to WebMD, there is currently no scientific evidence to back any medical claims made about common mallow. So, the question is, should I pull them all up or let them grow? As much as I love growing edibles, I think this one is going to have to go. First off, it is an invasive plant. Secondly, my husband really wants at least a little bit of green lawn in my backyard garden. Gotta keep the peace, right? There it is, the mallow goes. But that brings me to something else. As you may have heard me say before, you can use the weeds in your yard to help you figure out which edibles should grow equally well. Since I know common mallows can grow well in my yard, maybe it’s time to try growing okra… I’ve seen goji berries in seed catalogs, but haven’t (yet) tried my hand at growing them. This might be the year! Also known as wolfberries, these bright reddish-orange berries are a type of boxthorn native to Asia. They have been part of Asian cuisine and medicine for over 2,000 years. Goji berries grow on somewhat thorny deciduous shrubs that produce numerous canes. In early summer, you’ll see small purple flowers. A month or so later, your crop will start to come in! Pros and cons of goji berries
There are many claims about the health benefits of these members of the nightshade family. Said to help fight aging, diabetes, depression, high blood pressure, eye and skin problems, and more, these fruits contain high levels of vitamin C, antioxidants, iron, and fiber. While research has backed some of those claims, it has shown negative interactions, as well. If you are taking warfarin, blood pressure drugs, or diabetes drugs, you may want to think twice about eating goji berries. Another problem with goji berry products is that they have been found to contain high levels of pesticides and fungicides. If you really want goji berries, it’s probably a good idea to grow your own. Goji berries have a very short shelf life, so growing your own is really the best way to go. As a bonus, the fruits don’t ripen all at once, so you can nibble a few berries as you putter in the garden. You know, the same way you enjoy those delicious yellow cherry tomatoes that never seem to make it into the house. Goji berry species Before you start, you need to know that there are two different species of goji berry available. The fruits are very similar to each other, but Lycium barbarum and L. chinense taste slightly different from each other and they tolerate different temperature ranges. If you live in Hardiness Zones 3-10, you can grow your own Lycium barbarum goji berry bush. The L. chinense variety is said to have a more limited range, Zones 2-7, so be sure to get yours from a reputable seller. Planting goji berries You’ll need to give your goji berry plants some room. These shrubs can grow 10-13’ tall and 4’ wide, though they are often pruned to 3-6’ tall, for easier harvesting and management. They grow best in full sun, though they can tolerate partial shade. Goji berries prefer loose, somewhat alkaline soil, with a pH of 6.5-7.5. Goji berry shrubs are most commonly grown from bare root stock. You can also start one from seed, but it will take a few years to get a crop and they don’t always grow true to the parent. Goji berries can be grown in large containers (at least 5 gallons), but they will be much happier in the ground because they have a taproot. Goji berry plants can be left as shrubs or trained up a trellis. Goji berry care The first year you have a goji berry plant, leave it alone except to water. Mulching around (but not touching) the stem can stabilize soil temperatures, retain moisture, and reduce weed competition. In the second year, allow a central cane to grow upright and prune all the others to a height of 15”. You may need to provide support to keep it growing straight up, much like when growing currants. As the plant gets taller, pinch back stems to promote lateral growth for better flowering and fruit production. The fruit is produced on new growth, so remove canes the winter after they produce fruit. This will make room for new growth and provide good airflow. You can help your goji berry shrub live longer and be more productive by removing all the flower buds for the first couple of years. This will push the plant to develop a healthier root system. Your goji berry shrub will take 4-5 years to reach full production. Goji berry problems Like tomatoes, goji berries are susceptible to blossom end rot. Regular irrigation can help prevent that from happening. Common pests include aphids, birds, gall mites, Japanese beetles, leafhoppers, spider mites, and thrips. Diseases include anthracnose, early blight, and powdery mildew. If you’ve ever grown goji berries, I’d love to hear about your experience in the Comments! The fish tanks of our youth were often coated with algae. As gardeners, you may see algae growing in planter pot saucers, rain barrels, or birdbaths. You may also see it growing on your soil. But what do you really know about this plant family? And what does it do in your garden? Algae plants Algae are a large group of plants most commonly found in water. Most seaweeds are algae, but I doubt any of us are growing any seaweed in our gardens. Unlike moss, which prefers shaded areas, algae thrive in direct sunlight. Algae can also become a problem in greenhouses and on houseplants. By learning more about how these plants grow, we can find ways to reduce a few garden problems. Algae are simple plants that contain chlorophyll and perform photosynthesis, the same as your tomato plants. Some of them absorb nutrients through osmosis, sucking, or surrounding and incorporating smaller life forms. Algae need water more than they need heat. This is why algae is often seen in spring and autumn on soil with drainage or overwatering problems. Algae do not have true stems, roots, leaves, or vascular tissues. There are green, brown, red, and golden algae. There is also something called blue-green algae that is more closely related to bacteria than plants. These microorganisms are all believed to be some of the first lifeforms on Earth. But we probably don’t want them growing in our birdbaths or on our soil. Algae on soil A thin layer of green slime on exposed soil is usually algae. Algae won’t harm your plants directly, but it does compete for nutrients and water, and often attracts fungus gnats and shore flies. As the algae dry out, they can form a dark, dry crust that makes it difficult for water and gases to penetrate in either direction. Algae prefer neutral to alkaline soil pH, so acidic soil is less likely to have a problem with algae. If your soil is heavy or compacted, adding compost can improve drainage. If you have an area that stays wet, you may want to consider installing a rain garden there. Rain gardens are sunken areas that put native plants to work to absorb excess water. Algae in plant containers Algae can grow on vermiculite, peat moss, and perlite, as well as soil. If plant containers and seedling pots are not allowed to dry out between waterings, algae spores floating in the air will take up residence. Rather than watering containerized plants from above, add water from below. This encourages the root system to expand downward and makes life more difficult for algae. Algae in birdbaths If your yard features a birdbath, keeping it clean is necessary for bird health. Red algae commonly grow in birdbaths and should be removed by scrubbing with a mixture of 9 parts water and 1 part vinegar. Birdbaths placed in sunny areas will have more of an algae problem than birdbaths placed in the shade. Position your birdbath accordingly. If you see algae in your garden soil, try aerating the area. If you see algae in potted plants, let the soil dry out between waterings. If your birdbath is demanding more time than you want to give, move it to a shadier spot.
And if you haven’t seen the fish in your tank lately, it may be time for a good scrubbing, If you grow beets or spinach, you should probably know about beet yellows virus (BYV) and beet pseudo yellows virus (BPYV). These two diseases look and behave enough alike that you don’t need to know the difference unless you start working in a plant disease lab. [I’d love to hear about that job!] Along with BYV and BPYV, beet chlorosis virus and beet western yellow virus are two other diseases that are similar enough to be included in this group for our purposes. Symptoms of beet yellows viruses
Unlike the beet mosaic virus, where symptoms first occur in new, younger leaves, symptoms of beet yellows viruses first appear on lower, older leaves between the veins. If you look closely, you may also see reddish-brown spots. Those spots are like freckles, eventually becoming so numerous as to create bronzing. As the disease progresses, leaves thicken, becoming leathery and brittle. Of course, your beet plants can catch both diseases simultaneously in a condition called virus decline, which makes diagnosis tricky. [Unfortunately, I could not find a photo I could use.] Disease vectors These diseases are all spread by aphids. Aphids are bad. Aphids are the most common guilty parties when it comes to disease transmission. As they travel around your landscape, aphids pierce nearly every plant, looking for a tasty meal. As they do, viruses can move from the aphid to your plants. And beets aren’t the only plants that can become infected with beet yellows viruses. Beet yellows viruses can infect raspberries, strawberries, melons and squash, and sunflower family plants. Poppies can catch these diseases, too. That’s probably half the edibles growing in your garden! So, what can you do about it? Controlling beet yellows viruses It only takes a single aphid to explode into a problem. Aphids reproduce rapidly and don’t need help from another aphid to start making baby aphids. Beet yellows virus problems often begin in overwintered beets and other host plants. Cutting host plants off at soil level at the end of the growing season allows valuable soil microorganisms to migrate to other plants, and they may surprise you with a spring appearance! [I have found this is particularly true of cabbages, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, and Swiss chard.] These tips can help reduce the risk of beet yellows viruses occurring in your garden:
Any time you start seeing leaf discoloration, take a closer look. It’s usually easier to control problems sooner rather than later. Shoestrings are no surprise on your sneakers. Finding them in the garden is something else. Leaves and stems grow in predictable ways, except sometimes they don’t. Sometimes stems grow strangely flattened in a behavior known as fasciation. If you see leaves or other growths that look like a Halloween hag's broomstick, then it's witches broom. But when leaves grow oddly thin and leathery, it is called shoestringing. There are several types of shoestringing, and they have different causes and cures. Temperature-based shoestringing Temperature-based shoestringing is a disorder commonly seen on eggplant leaves. At first, you would see holes in the middle and on the edges of leaves and think it was insect feeding. As the condition worsens, you might suspect it was a viral disease or chemical overspray. In severe cases, you may see chlorosis or stunting. This type of shoestringing occurs when high temperatures occur as plants are in specific growth stages. In other words, there is nothing you can do. You should still probably monitor for insect pests, just in case. Chemical-induced shoestringing Chemical overspray can also cause shoestringing. A neighbor (or you) may spray herbicide on a breezy day. Chemicals soar over the fence (or across the yard) and land on your tomatoes or other crops, causing leaves to become thin and stringy. The same symptoms may also indicate viral disease. Viral shoestringing Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) can cause shoestringing in tomato plants. Are the leaves mottled? Take a closer look at the stems. If you see a zigzag pattern, it is CMV. Blueberry plants are susceptible to a virus that causes shoestringing. Symptoms are not visible at first. This disease lays dormant for up to 4 years before long red streaks appear on stems. Those streaks are more frequent on the side of the plant that gets the most sunlight. Leaves take on a reddish or purple straplike or cupped shape. Rather than deep purple, infected fruit has more of a reddish tinge. Healthy white flowers develop a pink tint. Spread by blueberry aphids, this disease is highly contagious. Remove infected stems and monitor the plant closely. Armillaria root rot is another viral shoestringing disease. Also known as shoestring rot, this disease affects several fruit and nut trees. Rather than growing normally, infected leaves cup downward and start yellowing. If you were to dig up the roots of a tree infected with Armillaria root rot, you would see blackened rhizomorphs, or shoestrings, growing on the surface of otherwise healthy-looking roots. In some cases, those shoestrings may grow up under the bark. And sometimes, they glow! Sadly, trees infected with Armillaria root rot must be removed.
If you see shoestringing in your garden, look again. See if you can figure out what's causing it. Have you ever seen strange bits sticking out of your apple tree in spring? Or, moths fluttering around your tree on a summer afternoon? You might want to take a closer look. Those bits may be discarded pupal casings from apple clearwing moths, and these pests can kill your tree. Also known as red-belted moths, apple clearwing moths (Synanthedon myopaeformis) are native to Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. They were first seen in North America in 2005, in Canada. Now, Canadian entomologists estimate that the majority of host trees in British Columbia are infested. By 2007, these pests had made their way to Washington state. It’s only a matter of time until they spread further. And apple trees aren’t the only ones vulnerable to this pest. If you grow almonds, apricots, cherries, crabapples, peaches, pears, plums, or quince, you should know about apple clearwing moths. These invasive pests also attack hawthorn and mountain ash trees and are attracted to showy milkweed plants. Damage caused by apple clearwing moths The moths themselves are harmless. It’s their larvae that cause significant damage, especially to older trees. Caterpillars burrow under the bark, entering at burr knots, grafts, pruning wounds, injured branch collars, and areas damaged by tree supports left in place for too long. Larval feeding can kill young trees. Trees that survive often have weakened limbs, reduced fruit set, and early leaf drop. These conditions make trees susceptible to other pests and diseases and more vulnerable to drought stress and frost damage. Apple clearwing moth lifecycle These pests have a 2-year lifecycle. Female moths feed on nectar early to mid-summer, laying up to 250 eggs singly in crevices. When the eggs hatch, larvae burrow into the cambium layer. They feed on sap found in the phloem for the next two years. As they eat, they create shallow, winding galleries that weaken the tree. They also feed on new leaf and flower buds. In spring, you may be able to see the frass (bug poop) pushed out of these galleries by the larvae. [How about that? Even insects perform spring cleaning.] Larvae spend the winter protected in these tunnels, pupating the next spring. When pupae are ready to break free and fly, they push themselves through these frass openings. In addition to these discarded pupal cases, you may also see tiny holes (about half the diameter of a pencil lead) around the base of an infested tree. Apple clearwing moth description It should come as no surprise that clearwing moths have transparent wings. Unlike most moths and butterflies, clearwing moths do not have scales on their wings. They do have short, bushy tails, though! Apple clearwing moths have narrow, bluish-black bodies. Their forewings are slender and their hindwings are short. They have wingspans of ¾ - 1” wide and distinct reddish-orange bands around their bellies. Larvae are ½- ¾” long, a dirty white color with a reddish-brown head. Pupae are ½” long and pale yellowish-brown. Apple clearwing moth control Preventing this problem is much easier than fixing it. Start by making sure your pruning cuts are clean and flat and that they do not cut into the branch collar. If you believe your trees have become infested with apple clearwing moths, do not use wires to probe the holes the way you might go after squash vine borers in your zucchini plants. Infested trees already have enough damaged areas. They don’t need more. You may be able to reduce the number of adult moths emerging from cocoons by spraying Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Applications of cottonseed oil have also been shown to be helpful.
You can use the same yellow pheromone traps that attract male peach tree borers or make your own traps by baiting bottle traps with grape juice. To make a bottle trap, simply cut the top off a liter soda bottle and invert the top into the base. Tape the two parts together, creating a funnel. Male and female clearwing moths will be attracted to the grape juice but unable to find their way out of the trap. A mix of 8 parts water, 1 part apple juice, 1 part vinegar, and a little sugar has also been shown effective. Just remember, if you put out attractants, whether food or pheromonal, you will be attracting moths to your garden. There are insecticides rated for use against apple clearwing moths, but they have their own drawbacks. Only do these things if you need to. If you believe you have apple clearwing moths on your property, please contact your local County Extension Office right away. And try to capture a specimen. If you have black mold in your house, you should go outside right away. Garden variety black molds are something else entirely. Well, mostly. Mold of any color Molds are a type of fungus. Other common fungi include yeasts, mushrooms, and truffles. Fungi do not contain chlorophyll, so they do not perform photosynthesis. Instead, they get their food by breaking down and absorbing organic materials. Fungi reproduce using spores and many of them generate threadlike filaments, called hyphae. These hyphae develop into a complex network, called the mycelium. Despite all the similarities, slime molds, such as dog vomit slime mold, are not fungi. We’ll leave that discussion for another day. You may see gray mold, white mold, black, or even blue mold. There are several different types of black mold. All of them produce black mycelium. Most of them are relatively benign, but some of them are dangerous. Toxic black mold After building materials are exposed to moisture from flooding or fire-fighting, Stachybotrys chartarum fungi start to grow. Generally rare in nature, these spores can also be found in grain and soil. Water-damaged buildings provide the perfect habitat for these microfungi to breed and grow. As they grow and are disturbed, they release toxins into the air that can make you sick. Toxic black mold needs to be removed right away. Sooty mold Sooty mold is another black mold. Often seen on citrus and other tree leaves, onions and garlic, peanuts, and grapes, this black mold is the Aspergillus niger fungi. For the most part, this variety is safe to be around, unless you are a farmworker and exposed to it alot. In that case, a serious lung disease called aspergillosis can occur. This fungus can also cause fungal ear infections (otomycosis). I was surprised to learn than the sooty mold fungus is commonly used in industrial applications to produce citric acid and high fructose corn syrup, and to clarify wine. Weird, right? If you see sooty mold, apply sticky barriers to halt the protection provided by ants, and give your plants a wipe down to remove the mold. Alternaria leaf spot
Also known as Alternaria rot and black rot, Alternaria leaf spot creates black or brown spots on the leaves of many garden plants. It can also create dark, round, flattened lesions on cherries, papaya, tomatoes, and many other fruits. Similar in appearance to blossom end rot, Alternaria leaf spot damage can appear anywhere on an infected fruit. [Unfortunately, I couldn’t find a photo I could use.] Exposure to the Alternaria alternata fungi has been found to trigger asthma and allergic rhinitis. If this mold appears in your garden, your plants will benefit from proper spacing, pruning for better air circulation, and the removal of affected plant material. Bottom line: If you see black mold, find out which type it is and take the appropriate action. December is a time of skiing and sleigh rides in much of the northern hemisphere. Not so much in coastal California. While iconic snowflakes rarely fall on my garden, your situation may be something else entirely. But, being from New England, I’ve seen my share. It wasn’t until very recently that I learned just how amazing each snow crystal really is. Contrary to popular sentiment, bits of snow are not flakes. They are crystals. How these crystals form is mind-boggling. What it does to your garden may surprise you, too. But let’s start with a water molecule. Water chemistry Most of us are familiar with H2O. That moniker tells us that each molecule of water is made up of two hydrogen atoms connected to one oxygen atom. It ends up that all those whirling electrons are pulled closer to the oxygen atom. This gives oxygen a slightly negative charge, leaving hydrogen atoms with a slightly positive charge. [Don’t run away! This will all make sense in just a moment.] For snow crystals to form, water vapor, liquid water, and ice must all be present. As gazillions of water molecules float around in a cloud, their charges attract and repel each other like magnets. The negative side of a water molecule is pulled toward the positive side of other water molecules. [This is why water has surface tension, too.] When snow crystals form, five more water molecules, in liquid form, collect on this negative side and end up creating a 4-sided pyramid, or tetrahedron. As temperatures drop, this water turns to ice, suddenly shifting into the iconic 6-sided shape that decorates Christmas cards around the world. Up to this point, most snow crystals are identical. It’s when countless combinations of trajectory, humidity, and temperature changes are factored in that each snow crystal becomes unique. [Did you know that snow crystals can form triangles, diamonds, and pillars? I didn’t either.] Snow in the garden If you wake one winter morning to see your garden blanketed in snow, don’t panic. While freezing temperatures can kill tender annuals, making a mess of leaves, a thick covering of snow protects plant roots, earthworms, and important soil microorganisms. Those chilling hours translate into bigger fruit and nut crops next year, too! But how can snow crystals protect plants from freezing? It doesn’t make sense! As temperatures drop, the water contained in plants expands as it freezes. This causes frost cracks in stems and blackened leaves. Snow-covered soil tends to stay right around 32°F. This happens because of tiny pockets of air caught within the 6-sided crystals. This air insulates whatever is covered. Of course, too much snow on tree branches can lead to breakage. You made need to prune or protect trees if you get a lot of the white stuff. If temperatures happen to rise, well, plants get irrigated. Another surprising benefit is that nitrogen and sulfur in the atmosphere are captured as each crystal falls. When it melts, those important plant nutrients are released into the soil. If snow falls on your garden this winter, take a cue from Nature and grab yourself a nice fuzzy blanket, a hot beverage, and start planning your spring garden!
Strawberries don’t grow on trees! Everyone knows that. But you might be surprised, as my friend Linda was, to learn that you may already have this edible growing in your yard. Strawberry trees are members of the heath or heather family (Ericaceae), making them cousins to blueberries, lingonberries, azaleas, and rhododendrons. Native to the Mediterranean region, these trees are often mistaken for manzanita and other ornamental landscape trees. The brightly colored, spiky fruits may not look edible at first glance. It ends up they don’t taste good when eaten too soon, either. Strawberry tree fruit Strawberry tree fruit has a bumpy surface and is about the size of a small walnut. These berries are sweet once they turn red, but not before. Even then, their taste is described as bland by some. Supposedly, Pliny the Elder gave this plant its name after saying, “Unum tantum edo.” (I only eat one) We don't know why. Maybe he didn't like it. Maybe he found the rich, custard-like texture of one fruit satisfying. These fruits have tiny seeds which, to some, may make the fruit seem gritty, like a kiwifruit. My friend assures me that, once you’ve tried it, you’ll want to stand under the tree and keep eating! So, why haven’t you seen these fruits in the grocery store? Unlike apples and pears, which can be picked unripe and shipped and stored, strawberry tree fruit is very soft and it bruises easily. If you want strawberry tree fruit, you’ll have to grow your own tree or find a neighbor who already has one. [I wonder how many other edible plants we know nothing about, simply because grocery stores can't sell them…] How strawberry trees grow
These evergreen trees average 15’ tall and 10’ wide, but they can grow 30’ tall. The grayish-brown bark peels away, exposing a lovely reddish-brown inner bark, reminiscent of our beloved manzanita. These trees grow best in USDA Hardiness Zones 7-10 and they love sunny, dry climates. Dark green, glossy leaves are 2-4” long and 1” wide, with red stems. White flowers appear in autumn, around the same time the previous year’s fruit is ready for harvesting. Because the flowers are hermaphroditic, you only need one tree. These trees are moderately drought and frost resistant and can tolerate shade and salt. Like other family members, strawberry trees prefer neutral to slightly acidic soil. Aphids and fungal leaf spot are the most common problems faced by these trees. Other potential pests include flathead borers, leaf miners, scale insects, thrips, and western tent caterpillars. Other diseases that may infect your strawberry tree include annosus root disease, anthracnose, Arbutus leaf spots, leaf galls, phytophthora, sudden oak death, and twig dieback. Many of these diseases can be prevented with good drainage. Strawberry tree varieties There are three different varieties of European strawberry tree: the Spanish Arbutus canariensis, the Greek A. andrachne, and the topic of our discussion today, A. unedo. There is a North America cousin, the madrone or madrone tree (A. menziesii), but the genetic connection is too distant to allow for easy hybridization. European cousins can cross-pollinate, but fruit production is intermittent to unlikely. One variety often found in California is a cross between A. unedo and A. andrachne. It is labeled Arbutus x Marina because of the San Francisco district where it was hybridized. Strawberry trees can be grown from seeds or semi-hardwood cuttings. If you decide to grow a strawberry tree, local hummingbirds, butterflies, and birds will be glad you did. You might, too. Thanks, Linda! I found this in my juniper tree and had to learn more. It ends up that cedar apple rust has made its way to my yard. Cedar apple rust is a fungal disease that attacks, you guessed it, apple and cedar trees. Originally found only in the eastern U.S., cedar apple rust has spread. Knowing what to look for and what to do about it can protect your apple trees. Cedar apple rust fungi (Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae) need apples and cedar trees to complete their lifecycle. Crabapples, junipers, hawthorn, and quince can also be carriers. Infected eastern red cedars produce reddish-brown galls that can be up to 1” in diameter. They look a little like cones, at first, but not really. If you look closely, you can see tiny pimples all over these growths. After spring rains, these pimples swell and produce spore-producing, gelatinous orange arms that look like something out of a horror movie. Cedar apple rust life cycle These fungi produce four different types of spores: aeciospores, basidiospores, spermatia, and teliospores. Those bizarre gooey orange horns seen on cedar and juniper are the teliospore stage. These horns germinate to produce basidia. Basidia are club-shaped, spore-producing structures. The basidia release basidiospores which then travel, for up to two miles, on any breezes that happen by. Symptoms of cedar apple rust Apple trees may show symptoms on leaves, young twigs, and fruit. Small, yellow spots may appear in spring, growing and turning bright red or orange as the disease intensifies. Concentric rings may be visible within these spots. You may also see orange droplets. As the disease progresses, black dots may become visible. By late summer, strange, tubelike structures appear on the underside of leaves. Similar lesions may be visible near the blossom end of the fruit. Infected eastern red cedars produce reddish-brown galls up to 1” in diameter. They look somewhat like cones at first, but not really. Look closely, and you can see tiny pimples all over these growths. After spring rains, these pimples swell and produce spore-producing, gelatinous orange arms that look like something out of a horror movie. Cedar apple rust life cycle These fungi produce several types of structures and spores at various stages of their development. Bizarre gooey orange horns seen on cedar and juniper are one stage. Those horns germinate to produce club-shaped, spore-producing structures. They release those spores, which then travel for up to two miles on any breezes that might happen. These wind-blown spores land on leaves, twigs, and flowers. Here, they germinate and enter nearby plant tissue, where they enter another stage. These spores are spewed forth in a sticky liquid attractive to insects. Insects then carry the spores around, resulting in fertilization of the spores. These spores grow through their leaf hosts and produce yet another stage on the underside of the leaves. This stage releases yet another batch of release spores, which are then blown back onto cedar trees. Here they germinate and create galls that produce the next round of infection. Cedar apple rust control
Monitoring for symptoms of cedar apple rust is a good idea. Commercial apple growers remove cedar trees within one mile as a preventative measure. Fungicides are effective against cedar apple rust. Apple trees are sprayed four times, at 7- to 10-day intervals, just as buds open, as prevention. Infected trees must be treated with systemic fungicides by a professional arborist. Spray cedar trees in summer. The summer growing season may be winding down, but temperature extremes, smoke-filled skies, and who knows what all have caused many garden plants to behave strangely this year. For one thing, many plants took a lot longer than normal to get started. Our early heat wave, followed by a cold snap, and then scorching summer temperatures caused many plants to be confused about the seasons. Instead of following their normal progression of leaf and stem growth, followed by flowering and then fruiting, plants struggled early on to figure which task they should be performing. Small pepper plants are taking longer to get bushy, eggplants were late to bloom, and squash plants look as though they are starting the season all over again!
My solution: cut off older leaves and lift plants skyward with tomato cages. It might not make a difference. Then again, it might. In my mind, getting leaves and fruit away from the soil eliminates one point of pest entry. It also improves airflow around the plants, reducing the chance of fungal disease. It looks pretty cool, too. And I’m still getting zucchinis.
Fruit and nut trees make excellent additions to a landscape, but how do you know which trees to plant? The questions below will help you select the best fruit and nut trees for your landscape. How big of a tree do you want? Fruit and nut trees are available in standard, semi-dwarf, and dwarf sizes. Standard fruit and nut trees can reach 20 feet in height and width, or more. Semi-dwarf trees grow 12-15 feet tall and wide, while dwarf trees only reach 8-10 feet. Smaller trees have the added advantage of being easier to care for and producing fruit sooner than larger trees. Some varieties tend to stay smaller naturally. Standard sized peach and nectarine trees, for example, rarely grow larger than 12-15 feet. Most dwarf trees can be grown in large containers. How big of a crop can you use? Different tree species produce different sized crops. Under ideal conditions, a mature dwarf apricot tree only produces 40 pounds of fruit, while a standard apricot tree might yield 240 pounds. Using the same amount of real estate, a dwarf apple tree might produce 200 pounds of fruit, a semi-dwarf apple can yield 400 pounds, and a standard apple tree might produce 600 pounds of apples! That’s a lot of applesauce! What is your Hardiness Zone? Hardiness Zones are geographic regions with specific annual minimum temperatures. This information helps you select plants appropriate to your microclimate. How much sun does your yard get? Most fruit and nut trees need at least 8 hours of sunlight each day to be healthy and productive. Will you need a pollinator tree? Some fruit and nut trees are self-fertile. This means they have both male and female flowers and only one tree is needed. Other varieties need a second tree for cross-pollination. Self-fertile trees are significantly more productive when there is a second tree nearby. Which pests and diseases are in your neighborhood? Knowing ahead of time which pests and diseases are likely to affect your fruit and nut trees can help you select varieties that are resistant. This means less work for you. How many chill hours does your yard get? Chill hours are the combined number of hours below 45°F experienced by a tree each year. Without adequate chill hours, trees will generally not produce fruit.
Fall is the best time to plant bare root trees. Just be sure to plant them at the proper depth. This means the flare of the trunk and any grafting are visible above the soil level. For the first few years, when your fruit tree produces flowers, it will live a longer, more productive life if you remove those blossoms before they start turning into a crop. This gives the tree the time it needs to generate a healthy root system. Now start planting! A gooey, clear ooze dripping from your apricot, peach, or nectarine tree may indicate a fungal disease known as gummosis. Or, it might not. Gumming is a natural protective response used by trees to counteract environmental conditions, such as sunscald, frost damage, improper pruning, planting too deeply, excessive irrigation, and too much fruit production. Mechanical injuries caused by lawnmower collisions, rubbing branches, and outgrown tree supports can also cause gumming, as well as insect infestation by peach tree borers, flathead borers, and other boring insects, and by diseases such as Eutypa dieback, cytospora canker, Fusarium dieback, and bacterial spot.
When mechanical injury or environmental conditions are the cause, it’s usually pretty easy to see. When gumming is caused by insect invasions, you will normally see insects and bits of sawdust caught in the gum. When gumming is in response to disease, you need to read up on the possible diseases to know for sure what your tree has. Apricot gummosis symptoms Apricot gummosis starts out looking like blisters on branches and the trunk. As the disease progresses, the tissue around these lesions will begin to die and the tree will produce gum. As fungal spores grow and reproduce, cankers will form. Apricot gummosis pathogen Apricot gummosis is caused by Botryosphaeria dothidea fungi. Fungal spores enter through wounds. These fungi are opportunists, causing blueberry stem blight and cankers on a wide variety of plants. Trees suffering from lower limb dieback are commonly infected by this pathogen in their weakened state. Apricot gummosis prevention and treatment Apricot gummosis occurs most often in years with a cool, wet spring, followed by high temperatures. There’s nothing you can do about the weather, but there are steps you can take to prevent and treat apricot gummosis. Since gummosis generally occurs in trees that have been damaged in some way, protecting them from injury in the first place goes a long way toward preventing gummosis. Lawnmowers, weedwackers, careless pruning, borers, limb breakage, and other actions that can poke holes in a tree’s bark should be avoided. Whitewashing trunks and exposed branches can help prevent sunburn damage. Proper feeding and irrigation will keep your trees healthier in general. And always wait until your trees are dry before pruning. If apricot gummosis is present, all infected wood should be removed, spraying cutting tools with bathroom cleaner between each cut. This helps prevent infecting healthy wood. Cuttings should be removed from the property right away. Severe infections will require the use of fungicides. Research has shown that fungicides containing benomyl, fenarimol, iprodione, prochloraz, or tebuconazole. According to the study, “The best control was obtained with treatments of prochloraz mc alternated with mancozeb. Applications of bitertanol and fenarimol also significantly reduced the occurrence of cankers.” As with any time you are using fungicides or other potentially dangerous chemicals, read the label and follow directions exactly. Asian gypsy moths have just been spotted in various locations and officials are worried. You should be, too, if you live anywhere these pests have been found. A single Asian gypsy moth caterpillar can eat one square foot of foliage in a single day. Every day. For weeks. And they love fruit and nut trees, along with oak, elm, sweetgum and more that 500 other plant species. If the leaf loss doesn’t kill your tree or shrub, it certainly becomes more susceptible to other pests and disease. Adding insult to injury, these caterpillars have hairs that can irritate your skin and may cause allergic reactions that can last two weeks. Spreading invasive pests A single female Asian gypsy moth can lay 500 to 1,500 eggs and mature moths can fly 20 to 25 miles from where they started. This means they can spread rapidly. They also hitch rides on shipping containers, RVs, firewood, patio furniture, and your shoes. These pests were first seen in the U.S. earlier this year (May 2020), in Snohomish County, Washington. One month later, these moths were found in Oregon, Georgia, Oklahoma, and South Carolina. Now they are in California. Did I mention that these pests travel quickly? Asian gypsy moths have the potential to wipe out entire forest ecosystems, not to mention your garden and landscaping. Once pests like these become established in an area, widespread quarantines of produce, flowers, plants, and lumber are often necessary. Different types of gypsy moths Also known as Hokkaido gypsy moths, these pests are not the same thing as European gypsy moths. European gypsy moths are bad news, too. In 2017, European gypsy moths defoliated one-third of the state of Massachusetts, resulting in the loss of one-fourth of its oak trees the following year. Invasive pests have the potential to cause devastating damage because many of them have no natural pests and indigenous trees and other plants have not evolved their own protections. There are several subspecies of Asian gypsy moth which all look very similar: Lymantria dispar asiatica, L. d. japonica, L. albescens, L. umbrosa, and L. post-alba. You don’t need to learn how to tell them apart (unless you’re into that sort of thing). What is important is learning how to recognize them and reporting them right away. Asian gypsy moth description Easily mistaken for tent caterpillars or webworms, Asian gypsy moth caterpillars start out less than 1/8” long and tan. As they feed and grow, they may reach 3-1/2” in length, with two rows of blue and red spots along their backs. Fully mature caterpillars may have a mottled gray color that can range from yellow to black. Adult female moths are white and somewhat larger than most of our native moths, with a 3-1/2” wingspan. Males are grayish brown and smaller, with a wingspan of only 1-1/2”. Fuzzy buff or yellowish egg masses may be seen on tree trunks and branches, as well as fences, walls, and patio furniture. Each egg mass averages 1-1/2” wide by 3/4”, though they may be as small as a dime.
Asian gypsy moth control The first step in controlling these pests is prevention. Always inspect imported products carefully for signs of pests and place new plants in quarantine. Once they appear, it takes a concerted effort to control them. Washington state pest agencies are spraying Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki or Btk. Btk is a soil bacteria that kills the Asian gypsy moth but is not harmful to pets, people, fish, or bees. Before you can spray Asian gypsy moths, you have to know where they are. The California Department of Food and Agriculture and the United States Department of Agriculture are currently placing 2,300 traps over 81 square miles of the Sunnyvale area. If you see one of these traps, please leave them alone. If an agency asks permission to place a trap on your property, please say yes. If Asian gypsy moths arrive in your garden, it is critical that you report sightings to State or Federal officials right away. If you live in California, you can use the Pest Hotline at 1-800-491-1899. Otherwise, contact your local County Extension Office. By reporting sightings to officials right away, they are coordinate their efforts more effectively. Why on Earth would you want to wash off a plant’s roots? Don’t roots prefer being covered with soil?
Very often, mass-produced trees, shrubs, and other woody plants are root bound by the time they reach market. Roots can often be seen circling around the inside of the container, looking for a way out. Left uncorrected, these roots can girdle and kill the plants. Washing the roots allows you to identify the primary roots and to correct any problems.
Soil interface
Soil interface refers the what happens to roots when they come into contact with a different type of soil. Very often, the soil used in mass-produced plants is a soilless mixture that contains a lot of pumice and organic material. You might expect that plants would simply move into the new soil in search of food and water, but they often don’t. When this happens, the plant usually dies. The same thing can happen when you transplant summer annuals from high quality potting soil into more compacted, residential soil. [Believe me, I speak from experience!] Washing off the roots and installing the plant in new or resident soil eliminates this problem. You can do the same thing when planting vegetable and flower seedlings, just be very, very gentle. Planting depth Root washing helps you to replant the newest member of your garden or landscape at the proper depth. Bagged and packaged plants are often surrounded with extra soil. This soil is often assumed, incorrectly, to mark the proper planting depth. Planting trees at the incorrect depth is one of the most common causes of tree death. You want to be able to see the outward flare of the trunk above the soil line. Slightly too high is far better than too low. Very often, planting holes are dug too deeply and not widely enough. Trees and their roots are best pictured like a goblet on a plate. The goblet represents the aboveground portion of the tree, while the plate represents the root system, spreading out laterally. The crown and any grafting union should always be above soil level and soil amendments are not recommended. If you suspect deficiencies in your soil, get it tested before adding anything, because too much of a good thing can be a bad thing. How to wash roots Now that you understand why root washing is a good idea, how do you do it?
That’s it. Now you can inspect, prune, and replant. Finally, rather than watering your trees and shrubs (and other plants) on a calendar schedule, invest in an inexpensive moisture meter. Containerized plants should be allowed to dry out to the point that soil pulls away from the edges of the container slightly, then water thoroughly. The water-stress symptoms of overwatering look very much like the symptoms of not enough water. Don’t guess. Help your plants thrive with root washing and proper planting depth. Raccoons are garden bandits and they can be a real problem. The iconic bandit masked face of a raccoon should be fair warning to gardeners and homeowners. Raccoons are smart, strong, and tenacious. They will devour zucchinis and tomatoes, harvest prized koi, steal eggs, and kill chickens. Raccoon, the animal Raccoons (Procyon lotor) can reach 3 feet in length and weigh up to 55 pounds. They are mostly nocturnal and they hole up in brush piles, ground burrows, hollow trees, under decks, and in attics and garages. Raccoon litters, of 3 to 6 kits, are usually born in late spring and early summer. Raccoons are very quiet, and they are often intelligent enough to not be seen, so detecting them can be difficult. Until they start to eat. Raccoon, the thief Raccoons eat just about anything. They will scrounge your garbage cans and compost piles, wreak havoc on outdoor worm bins, and eat pretty much everything you grow in your garden. Corn is their favorite garden vegetable, but berries, tree fruit, nuts, and your other crops are all fair game to a raccoon. Like squirrels, raccoons are problem solvers. Research has shown that raccoons can recall the solution to a task for at least three years. Raccoon, the destroyer As mother raccoons feel the urge to create a den, they often look to buildings and uncapped chimneys as nesting sites. As she decorates the nursery, mother raccoon will often damage fascia boards, rip off shingles, shred attic insulation, dislodge heating and air-conditioning ducts, and dismantle rooftop ventilators. She will also designate one area as a personal port-o-potty, creating a nasty stench and staining the building materials. Even if the den is under a deck, the damage and smell can get bad. Many parasites catch a ride on raccoons. This act of phoresy can bring fleas, ticks, and other pests closer to your home. Raccoons can also carry roundworm, distemper, tetanus, rabies, and nearly a dozen other pathogens. Roundworm can be spread by inhaling infected feces and cases are on the rise. Raccoons infected with rabies may not show any symptoms at all, but they are responsible for over 1/3 of all human rabies cases in the U.S.
In order of importance and/or effectiveness, raccoon controls include:
In California, raccoons are classified as furbearers that can be harvested at certain times of the year. Nuisance raccoons can be taken by legal means at any time. It is illegal to relocate trapped raccoons without written permission from the Department of Fish and Wildlife. Uneducated relocating of wildlife causes far more problems than many people understand. Check with your local Department of Fish and Wildlife for the rules in your area. Research has not shown that chemical raccoon repellents work, so save your money. The same is true for home remedies. The bottom line in raccoon control is to reduce the food and shelter appeal of your yard. Raccoons are strong and can be vicious if cornered. If trapping is necessary, it is better to hire a professional. Most of us think of spring when it comes to actually putting seeds into the soil. Summers are dedicated to weeding and watering. Planter pots have all been washed and stored away for next spring, along with any leftover potting soil and maybe a bag of vermiculite. But planting season isn’t necessarily over, just because it’s summer. How much time is left to grow? The first thing you have to ask yourself before planting in summer is how long of a growing season you have left. If snow falls where you are by mid-October, you will have to pick some pretty fast growing plants before tucking your garden away for the winter. Here, in San Jose, California, we can plant crops year-round, but the list of plants is very different from one season to the next. Check your Hardiness Zone for first and last frost dates and then check seed packets for days-to-maturity or days-to-harvest information. There’s no sense watering and weeding a plant, only to have it killed by frost or snow before it can produce a harvest. Cool season crops In mild regions, summer is the best time to start thinking about cool season crops. Many winter crops take significantly longer than tomatoes and peppers to mature. Giving them a head start in summer means bigger harvests later in the year. Look at your garden and try to imagine what it will look like in one month, in two months, in mid-winter. As spring crops peak and then fade, you can introduce winter crops under the protective care of your summer garden. In some cases, summer plantings can even give your spring garden a boost. Beneficial beans Most gardeners know that beans and other legumes are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen in nodules on their roots, with the help of certain soil bacteria. Once these plants start flowering, that nitrogen is no longer available. Up to that point, any neighboring plants will benefit from the extra nitrogen, giving them extra nutrients as they near the end of their productive lives. If you live in Zone 9b, or tend to have mild winters, July is your last chance to plant beans for the year. Find space for one more planting. These beans will be ready to harvest long after any spring planted beans will have worn themselves out. They will also provide nitrogen to whatever is growing nearby.
The same is true for cabbages, Napa cabbage, leeks, and okra. Chayote fruit can be planted any time during the summer. By planting year-round, you are providing for the soil microorganisms that help your plants grow. You will also be providing your family with fresh, healthful food without ever leaving your yard.
I discovered a new insect in my garden: the cuckoo wasp. I was busy planting seeds and placing them in a sunny location, on my pumpkin ladder, when a flash of metallic green caught my eye. I looked for it and couldn’t find it, at first. But I knew I had seen it and I knew that metallic green either meant an insect or some plastic trash had flown in. In either case, I had to find it. Finally, there it was! An insect I had never seen before. It was probably no more than 1/4” long with an oblong body, a largish, rectangular head, and jointed, fringed antennae. The wings were as long as the body and when the sunlight hit it, the bright green really was beautiful. But I didn’t yet know if this was a good bug or a pest, so I captured it. Once I had it in a container, I could see that the underside of this new insect was just as bright green as the top. But I still didn’t know what it was. I looked in my field guide, but couldn’t find it. I could have asked my entomologist friend in Colorado, but I already owed him a batch of brownies for my last ID request, so I went to social media and asked the hive mind. In no time at all, I had several friends telling me that my new guest was a mostly beneficial insect, called a cuckoo wasp. I say mostly beneficial because cuckoo wasps kill the larvae of other insects. Some of those other insects are pests and some of them are beneficial pollinators. There are over 3,000 different cuckoo wasps in the world and 166 species in California. They are also known as emerald wasps, jewel wasps, ruby wasps, and gold wasps, depending on the color. These wasps don’t look anything like the yellow jackets or paper wasps most of us see each summer. They look more like harmless beetles. There is debate about whether or not these insects can sting. I didn’t see any sign of aggression in my visitor, by your experience may vary. Cuckoo wasps get their name because they lay their eggs in the nests of other solitary bees and wasps. Laying eggs in a bee’s burrow is no mean trick. Female cuckoo wasps watch sawflies and other solitary bees and wasps as they drag paralyzed spiders and other insects into their burrows, stocking up a larder for their offspring. The female cuckoo waits until the host flies off before sneaking inside to lay her eggs. Research has shown that cuckoo wasps are able to mimic the smell of their hosts, rendering them invisible within the darkness of a burrow. Particularly brazen cuckoo wasps will catch a ride on the paralyzed prey, carefully staying out of sight. This is dangerous business. Luckily for the cuckoo, if she is spotted, her brightly colored, heavily pitted exoskeleton is able to protect her from bites and stings. She is also able to curl up into a ball the same way a sowbug or an armadillo might. If she curls up inside an angry host’s burrow, the host has no other choice but to throw it outside unharmed. If you happen to spot one curled up, it may simply be taking a nap. Some cuckoo wasps are murderers and some of them are thieves. Parasitic cuckoos eat the offspring of solitary bees, wasps, hornets, sawflies, silk moths, and stick insects. The kleptomaniac cuckoos steal the food left for the host’s offspring.
It ends up that cuckoo wasps have very specific needs, as far as habitat goes. Adults feed on nectar from flowers in the carrot family, the sunflower family, and the spurge family. Cuckoo wasps are secretive and they move very quickly, which explains why I’ve never seen one before. But I hope I see them again! |
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